– The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks, pg. 165-166
In the early 1900s, grave diggers became a grave problem. Many people placed the word 'night doctor' onto these grave robbers. They would take mostly African American bodies and those of the poor because the white and wealthy could protect their graves with fences and locks. These bodies were then taken and experimented on or sold to medical school for practice cadavers. The fear continued on to calling them 'needle men' or 'black bottle men.' The needle man was said to poke a black person, and he would fall down and die. The black bottle men were only at hospitals, and would give a poison to blacks when they entered, shortly killing them after. With both of these, the black community believed the bodies were then whisked away for research immediately, disappearing without anyone knowing. While there have been explanations for these now, such as epilepsy as well as a common medicine given upon entrance, this further establishes just how deeply rooted the fear of night doctors was to African Americans.
In my culture and disease class, we read the book The Immortal Life of Henrietta Lacks, a great novel if you ever have the time to read. The above quote is from a part of the book, explaining night doctors and the deeply rooted beliefs and fears of African Americans. Many African Americans look at Tuskegee as a real life example that night doctors did/do exist. I decided to learn more about night doctors, the traditions and fables, as well as how they played a role in the experiment and how they play a role in today.
In the Antebellum South, slave owners and proprietors played on the traditions of African Americans by using their superstitious beliefs against them. They combined it with the idea of science to create a sense of security on their farms, making it so African Americans wouldn't want to run away. The white owners started by walking around at night in white sheets, disguising their voices and calling "I need a man...I need a man..." perpetuating the fears and rumors about the night doctors. Many say this is where the Klu Klux Klan got their idea for white sheets as a disguise. The original idea of night doctors was fiction: it was a story made up by whites only to create fear within their slaves. However, as time progressed, the idea of night doctors became more of a reality.
In the Antebellum South, slave owners and proprietors played on the traditions of African Americans by using their superstitious beliefs against them. They combined it with the idea of science to create a sense of security on their farms, making it so African Americans wouldn't want to run away. The white owners started by walking around at night in white sheets, disguising their voices and calling "I need a man...I need a man..." perpetuating the fears and rumors about the night doctors. Many say this is where the Klu Klux Klan got their idea for white sheets as a disguise. The original idea of night doctors was fiction: it was a story made up by whites only to create fear within their slaves. However, as time progressed, the idea of night doctors became more of a reality.
When talking in modern times, many refer to the Tuskegee Syphilis experiment as an example of the truths of night doctors. Although they didn't wear a sheet and go around only a night, the experiment "provides validation for common suspicions about the ethical even-handedness in the medical research...in particular, when it comes to Black people." Tuskegee took advantage of the African American community, using their bodies for experimentation. The authorities also secured the rights to autopsy, in order to take the body for experiments after death as well. Even though they didn't take the bodies from the grave, they did take them without fully explaining to their families why they wanted the bodies. Another modern example of 'night doctor' comes from Baltimore, associated with John Hopkins University.
In 2000, researchers took the lawns of nine black families and spread a 'fertilizer' over it, made of human and industrial waste, with the claim they were combating lead poisoning. They were told that if children played in the lawn and got soil in their mouth, the phosphates and iron in the new soil would absorb the lead rather than the child. However, they didn't tell the families about the other possible harmful side effects that the children could get from ingesting the foul fertilizer. Hopkins claimed that everyone was given full information and they received consent, but the NAACP called for investigation because the study could cause more harm then help. The soil was also not properly maintained, not installing an impermeable barrier or replacing topsoil with uncontaminated soil. Both of these measures would make the fertilizer more safe, but were very costly, something the landlords wanted to avoid. In the following interviews on youtube videos, it goes into more detail. It explains that the families were given compensations, they were told it was commercial fertilizer and that it was safe. The reporter that wrote about the story gives a great deal of his insight, that even though the children weren't directly eating the soil, they were told that the children would be better off if they did eat it on the playground by accident (or on purpose...kids can be crazy you know?).
In 2000, researchers took the lawns of nine black families and spread a 'fertilizer' over it, made of human and industrial waste, with the claim they were combating lead poisoning. They were told that if children played in the lawn and got soil in their mouth, the phosphates and iron in the new soil would absorb the lead rather than the child. However, they didn't tell the families about the other possible harmful side effects that the children could get from ingesting the foul fertilizer. Hopkins claimed that everyone was given full information and they received consent, but the NAACP called for investigation because the study could cause more harm then help. The soil was also not properly maintained, not installing an impermeable barrier or replacing topsoil with uncontaminated soil. Both of these measures would make the fertilizer more safe, but were very costly, something the landlords wanted to avoid. In the following interviews on youtube videos, it goes into more detail. It explains that the families were given compensations, they were told it was commercial fertilizer and that it was safe. The reporter that wrote about the story gives a great deal of his insight, that even though the children weren't directly eating the soil, they were told that the children would be better off if they did eat it on the playground by accident (or on purpose...kids can be crazy you know?).
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Within any article you read about night doctors, there is always some mention of the Tuskegee Syphilis experiment. It is the number one connection between night doctors and African Americans, and is frequently referenced and researched. For me, it was really interesting to read quotes and stories about African Americans who had dealt with the rumors of night doctors in the times of slavery compared to those who felt the implications of modern examples of night doctors, like the Tuskegee experiment. Racism was a huge part in the Tuskegee experiment, and the implications of those actions can still be seen today through all the references. It shows how the fears of AFrican Americans are not completely false, and their worries are completely justified. Stemming from the Tuskegee, there is still a great deal to fix with the AFrican American community and the medical world in order to qualm the fears and reform a relationship.
Night Riders in Black Folk History: Gladys-Marie Fry
http://www.icl-fi.org/english/wv/990/baltimore.html
http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2008-04-23/news/0804230255_1_johns-hopkins-hopkins-hospital-hopkins-bloomberg-school
http://www.icl-fi.org/english/wv/990/baltimore.html
http://articles.baltimoresun.com/2008-04-23/news/0804230255_1_johns-hopkins-hopkins-hospital-hopkins-bloomberg-school